Posted April 29, 2023	PSY 340 Brain and Behavior Study Guide for Test #4

Module 11 • Classes 33 & 34 • Learning & Memory

-Ivan Pavlov -classical conditioning -B. F. Skinner -operant conditioning -Karl Lashley -engram -Lashley's findings with rat experiments -cortical cuts -tissue ablation -Lashley's principles of equipotentiality & mass action -Richard Thompson & his research on rabbit eye blink conditioning -conditioning & the lateral pontine nucleus of the cerebellum -Donald O. Hebb & his model of memory: short- & long-term memory -George Miller: Storage capacity 7 +/- 2 chunks of info

-rehearsal, role of -reverberating circuits -consolidation of long-term memories -memories as labile &  reconsolidated -Alan Baddeley & his model of working memory -phonological rehearsal loop -visuospatial sketch pad -central executive control system -dorsolateral prefrontal cortex & delayed response tasks -Patient H.M. (Henry Molaison): type of brain damage -effects of bilateral medial temporal lobe resection (removal of the hippocampus) -anterorgrade amnesia -retrograde amnesia -declarative vs. procedural memory -explicit vs. implicit memory

-theories of hippocampal functioning -explicit declarative memory & hippocampus -spatial memory: evidence for role of hippocampus (e.g., London taxi drivers, birds) -place & grid cells in hippocampus -configural learning & binding -Basal ganglia for habit or implicit learning -Wernicke's encephalopathy & thiamine deficiency -Korsakoff's Syndrome: deficits of cognition -confabulation -chronological reasoning difficulties -Alzheimer's disease (AD): symptoms -AD & Down's syndrome -APOE-4 gene allele as risk factor -possible role of neuro-inflammatory processes in AD -Amyloid plaque -neurofibrillary tangle -difference between overall brain of normal vs. Alzheimer's patient -"co-pathologies" problem

Class 35 Lateralization of Function -Lateralization: what does this term mean? -Lateralization of the visual system (visual fields processed in contralateral hemispheres) -Lateralization of the auditory system -corpus callosum -ipsilateral vs. contralateral -taste & smell as ipsilaterally processed -Split-brain operation: reason for & what it is -"commissurotomy" (cutting corpus callosum) -Roger W. Sperry -right vs. left hemisphere differences in perceiving emotions, tone of voice (prosody), details vs. overall patterns -Role of right vs. left hemispheres in speech, audition, emotions, vision, etc. -"Spatial frequency" hypothesis -planum temporale: hemispheric differences -Effects of agenesis of the corpus callosum -handedness & speech dominance in the general population -"left" vs. "right brained" persons as a myth: no evidence that people rely more on one or the other hemisphere

Class 37 McGilchrist's The Master & His Emissary (The Divided Brain) -hemispheric asymmetry as an evolutionary product in humans and other animals -the right hemisphere's (RH) understanding of the world it experiences (individual, changing, etc...living beings in the context of the world) -the left hemisphere's (LH) understanding of the world (abstract, about manipulating things, fixed, isolated, general, ultimately lifeless) -the RH as "Master" (scanning for predators, etc.) and the LH as the "Emissary" (focusing on where prey might be found & captured) -Over many centuries, the development of culture in the West has favored the LH over the RH Class 38 Evolution & the Physiology of Language -productivity of human language -Language abilities of chimpanzees & bonobos -Irene Pepperberg & her research with Alex, African gray parrot -theory for evolution of intelligence in primates & parrots (life in a complex socio-ecological system) -Brain-Body Mass ratios and language -role of phonological loop in human language

-importance of gestures involving face and mouth -language & general intelligence: Challenge by the "KE" family -Fedorenko's findings on intellectual skills of patients with global aphasia -Williams Syndrome & language skills -Noam Chomsky -LAD (Language Acquisition device), Theory of -critical period theories:experience of late vs. early language learners; deaf children -feral children & use of language -Robin Dunbar's social brain hypothesis about language (in notes; not in book) -aphasia -Broca's/nonfluent aphasia -Wernicke's/fluent aphasia -why are music and language similar? -dyslexia: definition & characteristics of dyslexic persons -underactivation of Verbal Word Form area -underactivation of left temporoparietnal cortex -overactivation of left inferior frontal cortex -problems among dyslexic persons: dysphonic dyslexia, dyseidetic dyslexia, poor auditory memory, attentional difficulties (readers with fixation point 5-10 degrees off center)

Module 12 • Psychological Disorders

Class 39 Approaches to Diagnosing Mental Disorders (notes) -What is a taxonomy? -What does it mean "to carve nature at its joints"? -What is a nosology? -ICD: International Classification of -Diseases (from WHO) -Categorical approach to classifying mental disorders -Emil Kraepelin: what did he do regarding the psychoses?	-Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3, 4, 5, 5-TR) of the American Psychiatric Association -Dimensional approach to classifying mental disorders -What do GWASs suggest about the nature of mental disorders? -What are problems with the categorical approach?   • disorders on a continuum   • low reliability of diagnosis   • multiple forms of a disorder   • overlooked patients with sub- threshold symptoms	HiTOP (Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology) -General psychopathology factor ("p") -2nd highest layer: emotional dysfunction, psychosis, externalizing problems
Class 40 Schizophrenia (SCZ) What is the split in schizophrenia? -Positive symptoms of SCZ: psychotic cluster (delusions; hallucinations) & disorganized cluster (inappropriate emotions, bizarre behavior; thought disorder) -Negative symptoms of SCZ  - Cognitive impairments: both in childhood before symptoms appear & in adulthood -Demographic data & SCZ: changing prevalence rate (old 1%-> new 0.3 to 0.7%) -Gender differences (M>F), urbanicity, migrant status, economic development level -Genetics & SCZ: mono- vs. dizygotic twins (twin & family studies) -adoptive children & SCZ	Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) & SCZ -Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) -Recent (2014 & 2018) findings from GWASs about the nature of SCZ -Arnedo et al (2014) on SCZ as multiple distinct disorders -Neurodevelopmental hypothesis for SCZ  -Season-of-birth effect  -Mild brain abnormalities in SCZ: brain volume; enlarged ventricles; smaller cell bodies -Recent findings about white matter brain connectivity abnormalities -the delay in symptom appearance problem in SCZ: early development vs. later pathology	-Neuro-inflammatory hypothesis: overactive immune system -regular vs. defective synaptic pruning in childhood and adolescence -microglial cells as activated by cytokines -Dopamine hypothesis -Thorazine & phenothiazines -Substance-induced psychosis -Glutamate hypothesis -Phencyclidine (PCP)-induced psychosis -Mesocorticolimbic DA system -tardive dyskinesia -Atypical antipsychotic medications: side effects
Classes 41-42 Mood Disorders -Traditional categorical approach to mental disorders (discrete or separate kinds of illness_ Emerging challenges to the traditional model: dimensional approaches & "family of disorders" approaches -Major depression: symptoms -anhedonia -genetics: heritability, lack of evidence for a gene x environment effect (Culverhouse et al. 2017 study) -life stressors as a risk for depression -gender differences in depression -brain functioning problems in depression -structural problems (e.g., loss of volume, decreased synpatic connectivity, etc.) -actions of antidepressant drugs at the synapse (check out diagram)	-tricyclic antidepressants -MAO & MAO Inhibitors (MAOIs) -SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) -St. John's wort as treatment & warnings about -time delay & effects of antidepressant medications, e.g, BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) -ketamine as a rapid-acting treatment: new medication (Spravato) using Esketamine -Moda-Sava et al (2019) finding ketamine causing new growth of dendritic spines -Irving Kirsch's argument about antidepressant meds -U Penn argument about antidepressant meds -psychotherapy vs. drug therapy for major depression	-Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): side effects and use with depressed patients -Deep-brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression  -Mania: symptoms -Bipolar Disorder (BP) I vs. II -demographics of BP -Genetics & bipolar disorder -neurobiological factors in BP -treatment of bipolar disorder: lithium salts & anti-convulsant drugs; light & dark therapy -Seasonal affective disorder: nature of disorder, effect of light? -possible mechanisms to cause SAD -light therapy/phototherapy -dawn simulation

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The first version of this page was posted on April 12, 2005.